UNIT 2 Marketing Research

MBA MK-01: MARKETING RESEARCH

Unit – 2

Q1 :- Define Research Design? What are the different types of Research Design?

Ans:  Research design is the detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. It is a blueprint of conducting a research.A research design will typically include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected.

A research design is the plan of a research study. The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlation, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research question, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created to seek answers to research questions.

Types of Research Design :-

Various types of research design are as follow:

1.      Research design for exploratory or formulative studies

·         In this type of design, a vague problem is selected and understood and is then followed by an exploratory research to find a new hypothesis and then carrying out conclusion research decisions to finally get new ideas.

·         Aims at finding a new hypothesis.

·         Individual surveys, referring to secondary sources of data etc. play an important role in such research designs.

·         Reviewing related literature, following or surveying people having practical experience in the problem related field act as very important and most commonly used methods by an exploratory researcher.

2.      Research design for conclusive studies

Also referred to as the research design for the descriptive studies and is further divided as follows –

a.       Case Study method –

·         Finds extensive use in commerce and industry.

·         Very respectable method of teaching and research in management.

·         Helps greatly in knowing the causes and the results of the incident of the phenomenon.

b.      Statistical method –

·         Also trying to find its place in commerce and industry.

·         Act as method of correlation and regressions, analysis, chi square etc.

·         Has been made very rigorous and sophisticated by coming up of the computers.

3.      Research design for experimental studies

·         Explains the structure of an experiment.

·         Involve plans for the testing of the causal hypothesis.

·         Decides the number of observations to be taken and also the order in which experiments are to be carried out.

·         Which randomization method to be used.

·         Which mathematical model to be used for explaining the experiment.

This research design can be further categorized into the following –

1.                Informal experimental design –

·         After only design.

·         After only with control design.

·         Before and after without control design.

·         Before and after with control design.

2.                 Formal experimental design –

·         Completely randomized design.

·         Randomized block design.

·         Latin square design.

·         Factorial design.

Q2 :- Discuss various informal experimental research designs?

Ans. : Experimental Research design :- The process of experimentation is one of subjecting participants (e.g. target consumers, farmers, distributors etc.) to an independent variable such as an advertisement, a packaging design or a new product, and measuring the effect on a dependent variable (e.g. level of recall, sales or attitude scores).

1.      "After-only" Research design :

As the name suggests, with after-only experimental designs measures of the independent variable are only taken after the experimental subjects have been exposed to the independent variable. This is a common approach in advertising research where a sample of target customers are interviewed following exposure to an advertisement and their recall of the product, brand, or sales features are measured. The advertisement could be one appearing on national television and/or radio or may appear in magazines, newspapers or some other publication. The amount of information recalled by the sample is taken as an indication of the effectiveness of the advertisement.

2.      "Before-after" Research design :

A before-after design involves the researcher in measuring the dependent variable both before and after the participants has been exposed to the independent variables. The before-after design is an improvement upon the after-only design, in that the effect of the independent variable, if any, is established by observing differences between the value of the dependent variable before and after the experiment. Nonetheless, before-after designs still have a number of weaknesses.

Consider the case of the vegetable packer who is thinking about sending his/her produce to the wholesale market in more expensive, but more protective, plastic crates, instead of cardboard boxes. The packer is considering doing so in response to complaints from commissioning agents that the present packaging affords little protection to produce from handling damage. The packer wants to be sure that the economics of switching to plastic crates makes sense. Therefore, the packer introduces the plastic crates for a trial period. Before introducing these crates, the packer records the prices received for his/her top grade produce. Unless prices increase by more than the additional cost of plastic crates then there is no economic advantage to using the more expensive packaging.

3.      "Before-after with control group" Research design :

This design involves establishing two samples or groups of respondents: an experimental group that would be exposed to the marketing variable and a control group which would not be subjected to the marketing variable under study. The two groups would be matched. That is, the two samples would be identical in all important respects. The idea is that any confounding factors would impact equally on both groups and therefore any differences in the data drawn from the two groups can be attributed to the experimental variable.

4.      The "After-only with control group" Research design :

Again, this design involves establishing two matched samples or groups of respondents. There is no measurement taken from either group before the experimental variable is introduced and the control group is not subsequently subjected to the experimental variable. Afterwards measures are taken from both groups and the effect of the experimental variable is established by deducting the control group measure from the experimental group measure.

5.      Ex post facto design :

The ex post facto design is a variation of the "after-only with control group" experimental design. The chief difference is that both the experimental and control groups are selected after the experimental variable is introduced rather than before. This approach eliminates the possibility that participants will be influenced by awareness that they are being tested.

Q3 :- Define Data. Differentiate between Primary and Secondary (Processed) data ?

Ans. :  Data, information, knowledge and wisdom are closely related concepts, but each has its own role in relation to the other, and each term has its own meaning.

Data is collected and analyzed; data only becomes information suitable for making decisions once it has been analyzed in some fashion.

Knowledge is derived from extensive amounts of experience dealing with information on a subject. For example, the height of Mt. Everest is generally considered data. The height can be recorded precisely with an altimeter and entered into a database. This data may be included in a book along with other data on Mt. Everest to describe the mountain in a manner useful for those who wish to make a decision about the best method to climb it. Using an understanding based on experience climbing mountains to advise persons on the way to reach Mt. Everest's peak may be seen as "knowledge". Some complement the series "data", "information" and "knowledge" with "wisdom", which would mean the status of a person in possession of certain "knowledge" who also knows under which circumstances is good to use it.

Information in raw or unorganized forms (such as alphabets, numbers, or symbols) that refers to, or represent, conditions, ideas, or objects. Data is limitless and present everywhere in the universe.

Differences between Primary Data and Secondary Data:

1.      Meaning and Definition :

Primary data are fresh (new) information collected for the first time by a researcher himself for a particular purpose. It is a unique, first-hand and qualitative information not published before. It is collected systematically from its place or source of origin by the researcher himself or his appointed agents. It is obtained initially as a result of research efforts taken by a researcher (and his team) with some objective in mind. It helps to solve certain problems concerned with any domain of choice or sphere of interest. Once it is used up for any required purpose, its original character is lost, and it turns into secondary data.

One must note that, even if the data is originally collected by somebody else from its source for his study, but never used then the collected data is called primary data. However, once used it turns into secondary data.

Imagine, you are visiting an unexplored cave to investigate and later recording its minute details to publish, is an example of primary data collection.

Secondary data, on the other hand, are information already collected by others or somebody else and later used by a researcher (or investigator) to answer their questions in hand. Hence, it is also called second-hand data. It is a ready-made, quantitative information obtained mostly from different published sources like companies' reports, statistics published by government, etc. Here the required information is extracted from already known works of others (e.g. Published by a subject scholar or an organization, government agency, etc.). It is readily available to a researcher at his desk or place of work.

Assume, you are preparing a brief report on your country's population for which you take reference of the census published by government, is an example of secondary data collection.

2.      Data's originality :

Primary data are collected by a researcher (or investigator) at the place or source of its origin. These are original or unique information.

A researcher (or investigator) does the collection of secondary data from already existing works of others. These are neither originals nor unique information.

3.      Need of adjustment :

The primary data collection is done to accomplish some fixed objective, and obtained with some focus in mind. Hence, it doesn't need any prior adjustment before getting used to satisfy the purpose of an inquiry.

Secondary data collected are truly the work of someone else done for some other purposes. It is not focused to meet the objective of the researcher. As a result, it needs to be properly adjusted and arranged before making its actual use. Only after proper adjustment, it can be accustomed to some extend for achieving the aim of a researcher.

4.       Data sources :

Primary data are collected systematically through following activities:

·         By conducting surveys,

·         Taking in-depth interviews of respondents (These are individuals who give necessary information to the interviewer),

·         Through experimentation,

·         By direct observations,

·         Ethnographic research (It primarily involves the study of an ethnic group of people and their respective culture),

·         Focus groups,

·         Participatory research, etc.

The collection of secondary data is from internal and external published sources.

Internal sources of secondary data are:

·         Company's accounts,

·         Sales figures,

·         Reports and records,

·         Promotional campaigns' data,

·         Customers' feedback,

·         Cost information,

·         Marketing activities, so on.

External sources of secondary data include:

·         Data published by country's central, state and local governments,

·         Data even published by foreign governments,

·         Publications released by international organizations (like the IMF, WHO, ILO, UNO, WWF, etc.) and their subsidiary bodies,

·         Reports prepared by various commissions and other appointed committees,

·         Results of research work published by research institutions, universities, subject scholars, economists, etc.,

·         Books, newspapers, and magazines,

·         Reports and journals of trade unions, industries, and business associations,

·         Information released by a central bank, stock exchanges, etc.,

·         Public libraries,

·         Archives, Directories, Databases, and Indexes,

·         Old historical records,

·         Online websites, blogs, and forums.

Note: Sometimes, though rarely, even unpublished information still available in office records can also be used for secondary data.

5.       Type of data :

Primary data provide qualitative data. It means it gives information on subjective quality-related features like look, feel, taste, lightness, heaviness, etc., of any object or phenomenon under research or inquiry.

On the contrary, secondary data, provide quantitative data. In other words, it gives information about an object or event in a numerical, statistical and tabulated form like in percentages, lists, tables, etc.

6.      Obtained data's reliability :

Primary data are more reliable than secondary data. It is because primary data are collected by doing original research and not through secondary sources that may subject to some errors or discrepancies and may even contain out-dated information.

Secondary data are less reliable than primary data. It is so, since, based on research work done by others and not by the researcher himself. Here, verification of published information cannot be always confirmed accurately as all references used may not be available or mentioned in detail.

7.       Need of investigator :

Collection of primary data needs availability of trained researchers or investigators. Further, they also need to be adequately supervised and controlled.

If the availability of trained investigators and cost involved in hiring them is a problem, then in such a case, secondary methods of data collection are recommended. Its data collection doesn't need to hire them.

8.      Cost effectiveness :

Primary data collection needs the appointment of a team that mainly comprises of researchers, field interviewers, and data analysts, so on. Hiring of these experts and other additional costs, demands more funds to be allocated to complete research work on time. For this reason, it is a costly affair.

The secondary data collection doesn't require the appointment of such a team. Here, since no experts hired, cost is minimized. As a result, it is very economical.

Q4:- Define Processed Data. What are the sources of Processed Data? Discuss essential characteristics for selecting a research design?

Ans. : Secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone other than the user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, information collected by government departments, organizational records and data that was originally collected for other research purposes. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research.

Secondary data analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in the case of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-quality databases that would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments. However, secondary data analysis can be less useful in marketing research, as data may be outdated or inaccurate.

The secondary sources can be classified into two categories via. Published and unpublished sources.

A. Published Source

Generally, published sources are international, national, govt., semi-Govt, private corporate bodies, trade associations, expert committee and commission reports and research reports.

They collect the statistical data in different fields like national income, population, prices, employment, wages, export, import etc. These reports are published on regular basis i.e., annually, quarterly, monthly, fortnightly, weekly, daily and so on. These published sources of the secondary data are given below:

1.      Govt. Publications:

The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) and various state govt. collect compile and publish data on regular basis. Some of the important such publications are:

·         Indian Trade Journals

·         Reports on Currency and Finance

·         Indian Customs and Central Excise Tariff

·         Statistical Abstract of India

·         Reserve Bank of India Bulletin

·         Labour Gazette

·         Agricultural Statistics of India

·         Bulletin of Agricultural Prices

·         Indian Foreign Statistics

·         Economic Survey and so on.

2.      International Bodies:

All foreign govts and international agencies publish regular reports of international significance. These reports are regularly published by the agencies like;

·         United Nations Organization

·         World Health Organization

·         International Labour Organization

·         Food and Agriculture Organization

·         International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

·         World Meteorological Organization.

3.      Semi Govt. Publications:

Semi govt, organizations municipalities, District Boards and others also publish reports in respect of birth, death and education, sanitation and many other related fields.

4.       Reports of Committee and Commissions:

Central Govt, or State Govt, sometimes appoints committees and commissions on matters of great importance. Reports of such committees are of great significance as they provide invaluable data. These reports are like, Shah Commission Report, Sarkaria Commission Report and Finance Commission Reports etc.

5.      Private Publications:

Some commercial and research institutes publish reports regularly. They are like Institutes of Economic Growth, Stock Exchanges, National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT), National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) etc.

6.      Newspapers and Magazines:

Various newspapers as well as magazines also do collect data in respect of many social and economic aspects. Some of them are as:

·         Economic Times

·         Financial Express

·         Hindustan Times

·         Indian Express

·         Business Standard

·         Economic and Political Weekly

·         Main-stream

·         Kurukshetra

·         Yojna etc.

7.      Research Scholars:

Individual research scholars collect data to complete their research work which further is published with their research papers.

B. Unpublished Source : There are certain records maintained properly by the govt, agencies, private offices and firms. These data are not published.

Essential Characteristics for selecting Research Design :

Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.  The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to be the best design in scientific investigation.  Similarly, a design which yields maximum information and provides a opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate efficient design.  Thus the question of a good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.  A good research design should satisfy the following four conditions namely objectivity, reliability, validity and generalization of the findings.

1.      Objectivity:

It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the responses.  The research design should permit the measuring instrument which is fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same report.  In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one independent observer.  This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of analysis and drawing generalizations.

2.      Reliability:

Reliability refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements.  For e.g.: if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly.  If he is changing his response to the same item, the consistency will be lost.  So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.

3.      Validity:

Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected to measure.  For e.g.: an intelligence test conducted for measuring the I.Q should measure only the intelligence and nothing else, and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly.

4.      Generalizability:

It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn.  Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research design.  Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that:

·         The measuring instrument can yield objective, reliable and valid data.

·         The population is clearly defined.

·         Most appropriate techniques of sample selection is used to form an appropriate sample.

·         Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out, and

·         The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.

Q5:- What are the different methods of primary data collection?

Ans.:  Primary data are fresh (new) information collected for the first time by a researcher himself for a particular purpose. It is a unique, first-hand and qualitative information not published before. It is collected systematically from its place or source of origin by the researcher himself or his appointed agents.

Different Ways of Collecting Primary Data: Primary data may be collected either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another through personal interviews. These are the following ways of collecting primary data:

1.      Observation Method:

In observation method, the information is sought by way of investi­gator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that it is free from subjective biasness, as it is free from respondent’s willingness. It is, however, an expensive and time consuming method. Moreover, the information provided by this method is very limited and some of the more busy people like executives may not be accessible to direct observation.

2.      Interview Method:

Primary data may be collected either through personal interviews or through telephonic interviews:

a.       In the personal interviews the interviewer asks questions gen­erally in a face to face contact. Through interview method more and reliable information may be obtained. Personal information can be obtained easily under this method. It is, however, a very expensive and time consuming method, especially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken. Certain types of respondents, such as officials, executives or people of high income groups, may not be easily accessible. In this method, the respondent may give wrong and imaginary information. For effective interview there should be a good rapport with respondents which is often very diffi­cult to develop. For a good result the interviewer’s approach should be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased for which a proper training is required.

b.      In telephonic interviews contact is made with the respondents through telephone. The main merits of telephonic interviews are:

·         It is more flexible and faster than other methods.

·          It is cheaper and less time consuming.

·         Recall is easy and replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.

·         At times, access can be made to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.

·         No staff is required and wider representation of sample is possible.

This method also has several weaknesses. For example, the sur­veys are restricted to respondents who have telephonic facilities and little time is given to respondents for considered answers. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are re­quired for various questions.

3.       Questionnaire Method:

In this method a questionnaire is mailed to the person concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. This method is most extensively applied in various researches of human and economic geography.

The main merits of this method are given below:

·         There is low cost even when the universe is large and is wide­spread geographically.

·         It is free from bias of interviewer as answers are respondent’s own words.

·         Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently. Moreover, respondents are given enough time to give well thought answers.

The main demerits of this method are:

·         Low rate of return of the duly filled questionnaires.

·          It can be used only when the respondents are educated and cooperative.

·         The control of the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

·         It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

·         This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

4.       Schedule Method:

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaires, with little difference that lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for this purpose. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question.

This method is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some organizations. Population census all over the world is con­ducted through this method. For the selection of an appropriate method, the objective, nature and scope of study, the availability of time and funds, and the level of precision required are to be taken into consideration.

Q6:- What do you mean by Questionnaire? Differentiate between questionnaire and schedule?

Ans.: Questionnaire is a set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study. A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case.

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be concrete.

The important points of difference between questionnaire and schedule are as under:

1. Questionnaire refers to a technique of data collection which consists of a series of written questions along with alternative answers. The schedule is a formalized set of questions, statements, and spaces for answers, provided to the enumerators who ask questions to the respondents and note down the answers.
2. Questionnaires are delivered to the informants by post or mail and answered as specified in the cover letter. On the other hand, schedules are filled by the research workers, who interpret the questions to the respondents if necessary.
3. The response rate is low in case of questionnaires as many people do not respond and often return it without answering all the questions. On the contrary, the response rate is high, as they are filled by the enumerators, who can get answers to the entire question.
4. The questionnaires can be distributed a large number of people at the same time, and even the respondents who are not approachable can also be reached easily. Conversely, in schedule method, the reach is relatively small, as the enumerators cannot be sent to a large area.
5. Data collection by questionnaire method is comparatively cheaper and economical as the money is invested only in the preparation and posting of the questionnaire. As against this, a large amount is spent on the appointment and training of the enumerators and also on the preparation of schedules.
6. In questionnaire method, it is not known that who answers the question whereas, in the case of schedule, the respondent’s identity is known.
7. The success of the questionnaire lies on the quality of the questionnaire while the honesty and competency of the enumerator determine the success of a schedule.
8. The questionnaire is usually employed only when the respondents literate and cooperative. Unlike schedule which can be used for data collection from all classes of people.

Q7:- What is a Questionnaire? Write its advantages and disadvantages. Discuss different types of questionnaire?

Ans.: Questionnaire is a set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study. A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.

The advantages of a questionnaire:

·         Practical

·         Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way

·         Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability

·         The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package

·         Can be analyzed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research

·         When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change

·         Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses

The disadvantages of a questionnaire:

·         Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.

·         Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation

·         Lacks validity

·         There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being

·         There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in

·         The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation\

·         People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged

·         There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to what is and is not important...therefore they may be missing something that is of importance

·         The process of coding in the case of open ended questions opens a great possibility of subjectivity by the researcher

Types of questionnaire:

1.      Structured questionnaire :

·         Have definite and concrete questions.

·         Is prepared well in advance.

·         Initiates a formal inquiry.

·         Supplements and checks the data, previously accumulated.

·         Used in studies of the economics and the social problems, studies of the administrative policies and changes etc.

2.      Unstructured questionnaire :

·         Used at the time of the interview.

·         Acts as the guide for the interviewer

·         Is very flexible in working.

·         Used in studies related to the group of families or those relating to the personal experiences, beliefs etc.

A questionnaire can also be divided as the follows depending on the nature of the questions therein

1. Open ended questionnaire:

a)        Respondent is free to express his views and the ideas.

b)        Used in making intensive studies of the limited number of the cases.

c)        Merely an issue is raised by such a questionnaire.

d)        Do not provide any structure for the respondent’s reply.

e)        The questions and their orders are pre – determined in the nature.

2. Close ended questionnaire:

a)        Responses are limited to the stated alternatives.

b)        One of the alternatives is simply YES or NO.

c)        Respondent cannot express his own judgment.

3. Mixed questionnaire:

a)        Questions are both close and open ended.

b)        Used in field of social research.

4. Pictorial questionnaire:

            a)        Used very rarely.

b)        Pictures are used to promote the interest in answering the questions.

c)        Used in studies related to the social attitudes and the prejudices in the children.

Q8:- Define a questionnaire. What precautions will you keep in mind while preparing a questionnaire?

Ans.: Questionnaire is a set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study. A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The precautions a researcher  should keep in mind while preparing a questionnaire are given below:

1. Importance of the Problem Under Study or the Formulation of the Problem: The formulation of problem forms the starting point for developing the questionnaire. If the problem under study is an important one, a higher response is expected, but if it is an ordinary one, and which does not have any social relevance for the respondent’s life, the response is likely to be low. The problem formulated for study should be relevant for the respondents. A researcher can expect higher response, if the problem under investigation directly focuses on the respondent’s problem.
2. The Type of Information Required: Very extensive bodies of data cannot often be secured through the use of the questionnaire. The researcher should first find out the extent to which the desired data are already available in published reports and decide whether all or parts of the needed data can be obtained through a formal questionnaire. In brief, the investigator must decide what aspects of the problem are to lie dealt with in a particular study through a formal questionnaire.
3. Securing Help from the People who Possess the Experience in the Related Field: The researcher should secure all the help he can, in planning and constructing his questionnaire. He should study other questionnaires and submit his questionnaire for a critical analysis to other members of his research organisation or his colleagues and especially to those who possess the experience of questionnaire construction.
4. Thorough Knowledge about his Hypothesis: He should thoroughly explore his hypothesis, experiences, the literature available in the concerned topic and other related field to frame his own questionnaire. It will help him to probe the crucial issues of his research problem in depth.
5. Clear Understanding of the Objective of the Study: He should attain a thorough knowledge of the field and a clear understanding of the objective of the investigation and of the nature of the data required for the investigation.
6. A Proper Scrutiny: The questionnaire should be properly scrutinized for technical defect, quite apart from biases and blind spots arising out of personal values.
7. Numerous Revisions or Pre-Testing: Constructing a questionnaire calls for numerous revisions, in which variations of the same question should be given for an experimental trial. The same question posed in different ways very frequently may bring out different responses. This trial can be done through a pre-testing or a pilot study. A pre-testing is necessary to find out how the questionnaire works and whether changes are necessary before applying the actual questionnaire. The pre-testing of elements provides a means for solving unforeseen problems in its administration in the field. It may also indicate the need for addition or deletion of questions. Sometimes a series of revisions and pre testing is needed. After a pre-testing the final editing has to be done to ensure that every element has been scrutinized. Editing is required to make the questionnaire as clear and as easy to use as possible.
8. Willingness of the Respondent: The questionnaire is effective only when the respondent is able or willing to express his reactions clearly. The respondents must be chosen carefully. The questionnaire should be sent only to those who possess the desired information and those who are likely to be sufficiently interested to respond. Goode and Hatt say, “The respondent will not ordinarily answer a questionnaire dealing with a subject with which he is unfamiliar, such as air travel, impending legislation or experience with a particular branch of the government or an occupation”.
9. Precision of the Hypothesis: The questionnaire is mostly useful when a considerable amount of exploratory work has narrowed the questions to be answered. What is more important here is the sharpness of the hypothesis. The more closely focused the hypothesis, the more effective is the questionnaire.
10. Size of the Questionnaire: The questionnaire should be as short as possible. It should be only long enough to get the essential data. If the questionnaire is too lengthy the response is likely to be poor.
11. Letter of Appeal: A cover letter almost always accompanies the questionnaire, requesting it the respondent to provide his co-operation. In the researcher should explain what he is going to do, why he is doing it and for whom he is doing so? This appeal letter generally contains the name of the research institution carrying on research, the objective of research, the benefit that is likely to go for respondent or people in general. However the appeal should be brief, properly worded and impressive. Most of the respondents are not willing to read a long letter and lengthy appeal letter destroys its impact.
12. Purpose of the Study: The researcher may include the purpose of the study in his introductory remarks. In questionnaire’s cover letter it is essential to explain why research organisation requires such type of information from the respondents. However Goode and Hatt say, “The description of the purpose of questionnaire should be left out unless the respondent asks for an explanation of it”.
13. Appearance or a General Layout of the Questionnaire: While preparing a questionnaire a significant attention is required regarding the general layout or appearance of the questionnaire. Here unlike schedule the field worker is not present personally in the field to clear the doubts of the respondent. So this task has to be performed by the perfect appearance of the questionnaire itself.

(a)    Quality of paper:

The paper used for printing of the questionnaire should be of high quality. So that it will be durable and the letters printed on it will be clearly visible. If the paper quality is low, the printing on it will not be visible and the ink may spread over it. Therefore the paper should be of good quality. Otherwise it may lead to a series of problems of response for the questionnaire.

(b)   Spacing:

Between the questions, other titles and sub titles there must be proper space, so that the respondent can clearly and freely write his responses and it will be properly visible to the researcher also.

(c)    Margin:

A proper margin provides a better look to the questionnaire form. That apart, in order to keep the records systematically the researcher needs to punch and staple the questionnaire form. But if no proper space is provided in the questionnaire, the punching will destroy some of its written words.

(d)   Printing:

A proper printing is obviously more desirable because it attracts the respondent for a better response. The questionnaire form should be typed or printed carefully. The printed letters must be clearly visible, neat and free from over writing. Otherwise the respondent will not understand the question properly and leave most of the questions without giving any answer.

(e)    Use of pictures:

Often various relevant pictures should be inserted whenever possible in a questionnaire in order to attract the respondent for a better response. A less educated person may not understand a written question but by observing the picture he may understand it and respond to it.

14. Language of the Question: Understandably great care is required in using the language of the questions. Various unknown abbreviations, multi meaning words should be avoided by the researcher, because these may be known to the researcher but respondent may not understand it. Again in the questionnaire the researcher is not present in the field. So here the respondent does not get a chance to clarify his doubt. In case he faces any difficulty in understanding some questions, he may not be able to answer those questions. So the language of questionnaire should be simple and unambiguous.
15. Types of Questions: The ambiguous, double barrelled, complex, suggestive, vague, sensitive, normative, hypothetical, personal and too long questions should be avoided by the researcher as far as possible, because there questions may not bring a proper response from the respondents. Questions whose answers can be secured more accurately from other sources can be excluded.
16. Sequence of the Questions: It is essential to examine the order in which questions are to be asked. While framing questions the researcher should carefully consider the best sequence of the topics in a questionnaire. Questions should be arranged logically so as to determine the directions of the responses. It is always better to start with a simple, general, unambiguous and uncontroversial question and then proceed towards more complex specific and personal questions. Question which might embarrass the respondent or question seeking secret information should be put at the end. The researcher should also give some closely related questions in order to measure consistency and for checking the reliability of responses. There are some methods through which the researcher can check the problems of response.
17. Sending Reminder: The respondents are often slow to return completed questionnaires. To increase the number of returns, a vigorous follow-up procedure is necessary. In some cases a reminder may be sufficient but in extreme cases a telegram, phone call or personal visit may bring rapid responses.
18. Inducements: Some researchers are of the opinion that in order to get a proper response some kind of inducement is always required.

Inducements are broadly divided into two types:

(а) Monetary inducement; and

(b) Non-monetary inducement.

(a) Monetary inducement:In questionnaire method some inducement in the form of money may be given to the respondents. The amount is generally very small. It may be sent to the respondents with the envelope containing the questionnaire form or the researcher may promise to give it after the successful return of the questionnaire. It is always better to send the money in advance than to promise payment on return of the questionnaire. Another method of monetary inducement is to offer prizes by lottery. For example, the researcher may offer a few prizes on all accurate and completed forms on the basis of lottery.

(b) Non-monetary inducement: Often non-monetary inducements are more influential than the monetary inducements in order to get proper responses from the respondent. These may consist of the benefit that the respondent is likely to gain from the outcome of the study. If the respondents feel that the study is beneficial for them, they give more responses. Sometimes encouragement and motivation provided by the researcher works as non-monetary inducement for the respondent. The researcher should praise the respondent for his valuable responses by saying—”Your information is needed by thousands of scholars attempting to solve today’s problem”, “You will be contributing to the advancement of science”, “You will help to improve the education of thousands of students” etc. This will encourage him to provide more valuable information.

19. Questionnaire through Intermediaries: Sometimes, the questionnaires instead of being sent directly to the respondents are sent to the head of a villages or an officer in charge of an organisation. He gets them filled up and returns them to the researcher. It has been observed that the percentage of response is very high when it is filled up through the intermediaries or the leader of the respondents. But it is also having some negative consequence as the respondent may feel offended and give unauthentic reply.
20. Proper Time of Sending the Questionnaire: The researcher should send the questionnaire in such a time that it will reach the respondent on week-end days. Usually the busy respondent gives reply when he is free. So the week-end days are probably the best days to utilize for responding to the questionnaire. But if the questionnaire reaches on the initial days of the week, it may be misplaced by the week-end. Therefore in order to get high response the questionnaire should reach on the week end days.
21. Knowledge about the Correct Address of the Respondent: Sometimes the respondents are unable to send the answers because they do not get the questionnaire. If the researcher sends the questionnaire in wrong address, it may not reach the respondent. Therefore, a proper knowledge about the respondent’s address is very much essential for getting proper response.

It is difficult to estimate as to what percentage of responses can be considered adequate for an investigation. Importance of the project, quality of the questionnaire, nature of the project, nature of the group of the respondents selected, the duration and many other factors determine the proportion of responses that could not be considered adequate.

In case of interview or interview schedule, it is the investigator who motivates the respondents for better response. But in questionnaire nobody is present in the field and only it’s several pages of paper determines the course of response.

Therefore the questionnaire maker then must offer as impressive presentation as possible in order to get adequate response. He must plan carefully and seek professional help before he sends out his questionnaire. If all the above discussed precautions are taken into consideration, the questionnaire can be thought of as a special schedule, which can enable to bring maximum possible response in spite of the absence of the investigator in the field.

Q9:- Discuss the various types of observation method?

Ans.: The different observation methods are discussed as follows:

1.      Casual and Scientific observation – An observation can be sometimes casual in nature or sometimes it may act scientifically. An observation with a casual approach involves observing the right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement, but a very important point to be kept in mind here is that all the observations are not scientific in nature.

2.      Natural Observation – Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a normal setting and in this type of observation, no efforts are made to bring any type of change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in the collection of the information and improvement in the environment of making an observation can be done with the help of natural observations.

3.      Subjective and Objective observation – All the observations consist of the two main components, the subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation involves the observation of the one’s own immediate experience whereas the observations involving observer as an entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective observation. Objective observation is also called as the retrospection.

4.      Direct and Indirect observation – With the help of the direct method of observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically present in which type of situation is he present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means like photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to the indirect observation.

5.      Participant and Non Participant observation – Participation by the observers with the various types of operations of the group under study refers to the participant type of observation. In participant observation, the degree of the participation is largely affected by the nature of the study and it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its demands.But in the non participant type of observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the group takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the researcher and the group.6.

6.      Structured and Unstructured observation – Structured observation works according to a plan and involves specific information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and the various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data collection that are also structured in nature. But in the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically against the structured observation. In such observation, observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and relevant to the point of study and also this approach of observation is very suitable in the case of exploratory research.

7.      Controlled and Non Controlled observation - Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence of some of the external forces and such observations rarely lead to improvement in the precision of the research results. But these observations can be very effective in the working if these are made to work in the coordination with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc. Non controlled observations are made in the natural environment and reverse to the controlled observation these observations involve no influence or guidance of any type of external force.